Publications

@article{NGUYEN2023101077,
title = {Assessing decentralized groundwater governance performance in the lower Mekong region: The case of Khon Kaen province, Thailand},
author = {Thi Phuoc Lai Nguyen and Preeyaporn Muenratch and Sangam Shrestha and Ashim Das Gupta and Saurav K.C.},
url = {https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352801X23001789},
doi = {https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsd.2023.101077},
issn = {2352-801X},
year = {2023},
date = {2023-12-30},
journal = {Groundwater for Sustainable Development},
pages = {101077},
abstract = {Decentralized groundwater management has been implemented in various forms in the Lower Mekong Region (LMR) aiming to improve the sustainability and equity of groundwater (GW) management. However, fragmented implementation and unclear delegation of responsibilities have hindered the success of these approaches. The Royal Thai government has been a pioneer in introducing comprehensive groundwater policies and has implemented formal measures for GW management for over five decades, including the decentralized GW management model introduced in 2011. This study examined the performance of GW governance (GWG) in the LMR through the case of Khon Kaen province, Thailand, and using the OECD water framework with contextualized indicators. Sen's slope estimation and the Mann-Kendal test were also utilized to look into the patterns of groundwater extraction data in the study area from 2000 to 2019 in relation to the policy timeline analysis. The findings revealed a significant increase in GW extraction for business usage after the implementation of decentralization, driven by urbanization, and economic and tourist development. The research also found that the rise of new water actors with divergent interests, marginalization, the absence of non-governmental actors, and a lack of scientific and technical capacities prevent the effective GWG. However, the study discovered that the majority of GWG principles are favorably related to one another, with regulatory frameworks, defined roles and duties, and coherent policy being closely associated with most GWG principles. On the other hand, trade-offs across sectors and users were seen to have a detrimental effect on other GWG principles. The findings contribute to evolving the GWG Theory of Change (TOC), centering on GW users. This challenges the conventional idea of addressing water shortage solely through increased infrastructure, emphasizes institutional pluralism and scientific evidence for market-based mechanisms, and addresses GW use disparities.},
keywords = {Groundwater extraction, Groundwater marginalized groups, Groundwater policy, New groundwater actors, OECD water governance framework, Theory of change},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{ARYAL2023101590,
title = {Spatio-temporal variability of streamflow in major and medium rivers of Nepal},
author = {Anil Aryal and Manish Shrestha and Sharad Aryal and Surabhi Upadhyay and Manisha Maharjan},
url = {https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S221458182300277X},
doi = {https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2023.101590},
issn = {2214-5818},
year = {2023},
date = {2023-12-01},
journal = {Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies},
volume = {50},
pages = {101590},
abstract = {Study region
We selected six (three on each) major and medium river basins of Nepal as a study domain for the analysis. The study areas were so selected that they represent the river basins across the country from East (Kankai basin) to West (Karnali basin).
Study focus
This study focuses on the long-term hydrologic alteration in the river flow of Nepal's medium and major rivers of different river basins. The overarching objective of the study is to evaluate the spatio-temporal change in flow magnitude, duration, frequency, timing, and rate of change in the major and medium rivers in Nepal. With continuity in the development activities, it is imperative to analyze the potential impact of human activities in the hydrologic regimes. For this, we used a set of 33 indicators from the indicator of hydrologic alteration (IHA) developed by The Nature Conservancy for the pre and post-impact period. The pre and post-impact period is defined here as the time before and after which the substantial alteration occurred, possibly due to multiple reasons. The pre and post impact periods were determined using the Pettitt statistical test carried out at the most downstream of the hydrological gauge station of each river basin. Further, the trends in the annual flow were estimated using the Mann-Kendall test, and the slope of the trend was estimated using Sen’s slope.
New hydrological insights for the region
The results showed that in the post-impact period, the mean annual discharge in major and medium rivers of Nepal was found to decrease by 5.86% and 7.94%, respectively. Except for the West Rapti River (−14.3%), the hydrologic change of 1-day maximum flow is observed to have increased in the medium rivers and decreased in the major rivers. Moreover, except for the Kankai River (+14.29%), the hydrologic change of 1-day minimum flow is observed to be reduced in both the major and medium rivers. In major rivers, the overall degree of alteration ranges from 28.7% to 38.0%, which resembles the low to mid variability range. Similarly, the result of the hydrologic alteration showed that for the medium rivers, the overall degree of alteration varied from 35.8% to 46.7%, representing the medium range of variability. This suggests that the river systems undergoing moderate hydrologic alteration have experienced moderate alteration. These rivers might be capable of sustaining a healthy ecosystem, however, could be more susceptible to other stressors like drought.},
keywords = {Change point, Climate variability, Ecosystem services, IHA, Major and medium rivers},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{talampas2023,
title = {At the crossroad: Stakeholders’ perspectives from Thailand and Lao PDR towards a transboundary groundwater cooperation in the Khorat Plateau aquifer},
author = {Wendell D Talampas and Sangam Shrestha and S Mohanasundaram and Ho Huu Loc and Ashim Das Gupta and Saurav KC},
doi = {https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsd.2023.101010},
year = {2023},
date = {2023-11-01},
journal = {Groundwater for Sustainable Development},
volume = {23},
pages = {101010},
publisher = {Elsevier},
abstract = {To understand stakeholder perceptions from Thailand and Lao PDR in promoting and supporting transboundary groundwater cooperation, a stakeholder workshop was conducted to look into the role of scientific information, groundwater resource use, institutional and legal frameworks and challenges and opportunities within the Khorat Platea transboundary aquifer. Results showed that (1) stakeholders perceived scientific information as pivotal in exposing potential problems and facilitate transformative change among users and policy makers across border, (2) groundwater resource use in the plateau area is limited to domestic and agricultural applications but increasing resource abstraction portrays a forbidding future scenario, (3) Thailand and Lao PDR have made significant strides in the decentralization of laws and policies pertaining to groundwater use but remains weak as local authorities lack the knowledge to manage and protect groundwater resources, and (4) Thailand and Lao PDR are at the crossroad of groundwater competition and cooperation and should work together to manage and protect the Khorat Plateau transboundary aquifer system. While anticipation for a transboundary cooperation may still need more efforts to take, interests and initiatives from all stakeholders must continue as initial elements for transboundary cooperation have already been achieved.},
keywords = {},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{10.2166/wcc.2023.120,
title = {Influences of teleconnections on climate variables in northern and northeastern Thailand},
author = {Arisara Nakburee and Sangam Shrestha and S Mohanasundaram and Ho Huu Loc and Manisha Maharjan},
url = {https://doi.org/10.2166/wcc.2023.120},
doi = {10.2166/wcc.2023.120},
issn = {2040-2244},
year = {2023},
date = {2023-10-01},
journal = {Journal of Water and Climate Change},
volume = {14},
number = {10},
pages = {3460-3483},
abstract = {Teleconnection events can influence normal regional weather patterns and affect weather forecast accuracy. To improve the forecast ability, the relationship between main teleconnections such as El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO), Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD), Madden–Julian Oscillation (MJO), and climate variables (rainfall, maximum and minimum surface temperature, vertical mixing ratio, and vertical maximum temperature) was established using lag correlation coefficient and t-test methods. The results reveal moderately significant correlations between El Niño, positive IOD and rainfall, and vertical mixing ratio, which can be associated with lower-than-usual rainfall. The coincidence between El Niño and positive IOD events can worsen drought. Even though the MJO and regional weather correlations were significant, the magnitude of correlation coefficients was negligible. In addition, the spatiotemporal distribution of ENSO shows that the strong El Niño has more influence on rainfall anomalies in the post-1980s. Since there are insufficient studies on the association between teleconnections and climate variables, especially vertical mixing ratio, our findings can benefit prediction development for teleconnection-induced regional climate anomalies for extreme events and water management preparations in northern and northeastern Thailand.},
keywords = {},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{10.2166/wcc.2023.313,
title = {Application of machine learning models in assessing the hydrological changes under climate change in the transboundary 3S River Basin},
author = {Quyen Nguyen and Sangam Shrestha and Suwas Ghimire and Mohana S Sundaram and Wenchao Xue and Salvatore G P Virdis and Manisha Maharjan},
url = {https://doi.org/10.2166/wcc.2023.313},
doi = {10.2166/wcc.2023.313},
issn = {2040-2244},
year = {2023},
date = {2023-08-01},
journal = {Journal of Water and Climate Change},
volume = {14},
number = {8},
pages = {2902-2918},
abstract = {This paper aims to evaluate two machine learning (ML) algorithms, namely, convolutional neural network (CNN) and long short-term memories (LSTM) deep learning algorithms, to predict the hydrological regime of the 3S River Basin under various climate change scenarios. Climate models CMCC-CMS, HadGEM-AO2, and MIROC5 were used to predict future climate and streamflow for three future periods: near-future (2020–2050), mid-future (2050–2080), and far-future (2080–2100) under two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs) 4.5 and 8.5. The future projection shows an increase in mean annual temperature from 0.08 to 4.3 °C by CMCC-CMS, from 0.13 to 4.4 °C by HadGEM-AO2, and −0.07 to 4.2 °C MIROC5 models. Similarly, the annual precipitation is projected to fluctuate from 13.3 to 62.5% by CMCC-CMS, from −12.4 to 26.1% by HadGEM-AO2, and from 6.9 to 49% by the MIROC5 model. The 3S River Basin expects an increasing trend in streamflow in the Srepok and Sesan Rivers, while the Sekong is projected to have reduced streamflow. ML models predicted the increasing flood risk in the Sekong and Sesan catchments with the increase of the Q5 index in the future but a decrease in the Srepok.},
keywords = {},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{Pathak_Joshi_Ghimire_2023,
title = {Estimation of soil erosion using the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) in Relation to Landslides in Mid-hills of Nepal},
author = {Lalit Pathak and Kamana Joshi and Pradeep Ghimire},
url = {https://www.nepjol.info/index.php/jes/article/view/56483},
doi = {10.3126/jes.v9i1.56483},
year = {2023},
date = {2023-07-14},
journal = {Journal of Environment Sciences},
volume = {9},
number = {1},
pages = {82–93},
keywords = {Landslides, Mid-hills, RUSLE, Soil erosion},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{shrestha2023,
title = {Knowledge, attitudes and practices (KAP) on COVID-19 among the general population in most affected districts of Nepal},
author = {Salina Shrestha and Rabin Malla and Sadhana Shrestha and Pallavi Singh and Jeevan B Sherchand},
url = {https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgph.0001977},
year = {2023},
date = {2023-07-01},
journal = {PLOS Global Public Health},
volume = {3},
number = {7},
pages = {1-22},
publisher = {Public Library of Science San Francisco, CA USA},
abstract = {The COVID-19 pandemic has become one of the global health challenges in the current context. In Nepal, the first confirmed case was reported on 23 January 2020, and since then, it has resulted in several negative impacts, including economic disruption and deterioration of physical and mental health. In such a pandemic, it is indispensable to understand the knowledge and behavioral patterns of the general population regarding COVID-19. Therefore, our study aimed to assess the knowledge, attitudes and practices on COVID-19 among the general population in most affected districts and its relationship with socio-demographic conditions. The cross-sectional study was conducted among the general population above the age of 18 years from eight districts of Nepal including Kathmandu, Bhaktapur, Lalitpur, Morang, Sunsari, Rupandehi, Chitwan, and Kaski. A convenient non-probability sampling method was considered with total sample size of 702. The questionnaire survey was conducted to collect data. Descriptive statistics, non-parametric statistical tests, and a logistic regression model were used for analysis. The study showed that 93.3% of respondents had knowledge of overall preventive practices, whereas only 32% had knowledge of overall symptoms of COVID-19. Regarding attitudes, only 14.3% strongly believed that the COVID-19 pandemic would end soon. The preventive practice was reduced after the lockdown compared to that of during the lockdown. The respondents with white-collar occupations, high-income, and unmarried were good at KAP. Similarly, highly educated and those residing in urban areas had good knowledge and practice. The study findings will help in the development of targeted programs to improve the general population’s knowledge, attitudes and practices on COVID-19, which is paramount to dealing with the existing pandemic and also such possible future waves of the pandemic.},
keywords = {},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{PANDEY2023108287,
title = {Implementing conjunctive management of water resources for irrigation development: A framework applied to the Southern Plain of Western Nepal},
author = {Vishnu Prasad Pandey and Nirman Shrestha and Anton Urfels and Anupama Ray and Manohara Khadka and Paul Pavelic and Andrew J McDonald and Timothy J Krupnik},
url = {https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S037837742300152X},
doi = {https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2023.108287},
issn = {0378-3774},
year = {2023},
date = {2023-04-03},
journal = {Agricultural Water Management},
volume = {283},
pages = {108287},
abstract = {Climate variability and insufficient irrigation are primary constraints to stable and higher agricultural productivity and food security in Nepal. Agriculture is the largest global freshwater user, and integration of surface- and ground-water use is frequently presented as an strategy for increasing efficiency as well as climate change adaptation. However, conjunctive management (CM) planning often ignores demand-side requirements and a broader set of sustainable development considerations, including ecosystem health and economics of different development strategies. While there is generic understanding of conjunctive use, detailed technical knowhow to realize the CM is lacking in Nepal. This article presents a holistic framework through literature reviews, stakeholders consultations and expert interviews for assessing CM and implementation prospects from a systems-level perspective. We demonstrate the framework through a case study in Western Nepal, where climatic variability and a lack of irrigation are key impediments to increased agricultural productivity and sustainable development. Results show that knowledge of water resources availability is good and that of water demand low in the Western Terai. Additional and coordinated investments are required to improve knowledge gaps as well as access to irrigation. There is therefore a need to assess water resources availability, water access, use and productivity, to fill the knowledge gaps in order to pave pathways for CM. This paper also discusses some strategies to translate prospects of conjunctive management into implementation.},
keywords = {Climate change, Conjunctive management, Conjunctive use, Groundwater, Water policy},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{Ghimire2023b,
title = {Hydro-chemical characterization and quality assessment of shallow groundwater in parts of the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal},
author = {Manisha Ghimire and Sadhana Pradhanang Kayastha and Tejendra Regmi and Chandrashekhar Bhuiyan},
url = {https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S147470652200242X},
doi = {doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2022.103349},
issn = {1474-7065},
year = {2023},
date = {2023-02-01},
journal = {Physics and Chemistry of the Earth},
volume = {129},
abstract = {Groundwater is the main source of water for drinking and irrigation in the Kathmandu Valley of Nepal. Although quality of groundwater is crucial for public health, there is little information available. Considering this, groundwater samples were collected during the post-monsoon and winter from 35 dug wells of Lalitpur Metropolitan City located in the Kathmandu Valley. Chemical analysis of these samples has revealed alkaline nature of groundwater. Factor analysis (FA) and correlation analysis (CoA) have identified lithology, geogenic, and anthropogenic activities as the main factors governing groundwater chemistry. Cluster Analysis (CA) segregated samples into five clusters indicating difference in their hydrochemistry. The Weightage Arithmetic Water Quality Index (WAWQI) has revealed unsuitability of groundwater for drinking. Among the chemical constituents, Fe, Ca2+, Mg2+ and PO43− are found most influential. Concentration of iron, and calcium were much higher than the recommended limit for drinking water. High total coliform (TC) content in particular makes groundwater of the valley totally unsafe for drinking. While percentage of sodium (Na%), sodium adsorption ration (SAR), and salinity hazard values of the samples are found suitable, on the basis of the Permeability Index (PI), several winter and post-monsoon samples were unsuitable for irrigation. This study strongly recommends for treatment and purification of groundwater before supply and use for drinking and irrigation purposes to minimise health-risk.},
keywords = {Cluster analysis, Factor analysis, Groundwater contamination, Hydro-geochemistry, Kathmandu Valley},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{Ghimire2023,
title = {Groundwater Quality and Community Health Risk in Lalitpur Metropolitan City, Nepal – A Geospatial Analysis},
author = {Manisha Ghimire and Tejendra Regmi and Sadhana Pradhanang Kayastha and Chandrashekhar Bhuiyan},
url = {https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10106049.2023.2168069},
doi = {10.1080/10106049.2023.2168069},
year = {2023},
date = {2023-01-16},
journal = {Geocarto International},
abstract = {Groundwater is the main source of drinking water in the Kathmandu Valley (Nepal). To assess the groundwater quality of Lalitpur Metropolitan City (LMC) of this valley, samples were collected in winter and post-monsoon seasons from 35 shallow dug wells and 16 parameters: pH, TDS, EC, Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Total hardness, Clˉ, HCO3ˉ, NO3ˉ, NH4+, Fe, PO43-, SO42-, and Total Coliform were analysed. Hydrochemical analysis and GIS-based mapping has revealed spatial and seasonal variations in water quality. Concentration of most of the parameters was higher in the winter samples compared to the post-monsoon. Comparison with the WHO and NDWQS guidelines has revealed anomalous water chemistry. Zones hosting groundwater, suitable and unsuitable for drinking and irrigation were demarcated. However, the presence of pathogens in all the groundwater samples put the entire population of LMC under high health risk. This study bears importance in groundwater exploration, management, and prevention of water-borne diseases.},
keywords = {Groundwater quality, Health risk, Lalitpur Metropolitan City, Nepal, Total Coliform},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{Shrestha2023,
title = {Water infiltration rate in the Kathmandu Valley of Nepal amidst present urbanization and land-use change},
author = {Ganga Shrestha and Bijay Man Shakya and Mohan Bikram Shrestha and Udhab Raj Khadka},
url = {https://iwaponline.com/h2open/article/doi/10.2166/h2oj.2023.044/92989/Water-infiltration-rate-in-the-Kathmandu-Valley-of},
doi = {https://doi.org/10.2166/h2oj.2023.044},
issn = {2616-6518},
year = {2023},
date = {2023-01-12},
journal = {H2Open Journal},
abstract = {The rapid urbanization and land-use change prominently decreased groundwater recharge areas. Infiltration occurring through permeable areas is responsible for groundwater recharge. However, detailed studies of infiltration in low-income countries especially in human-encroached recharge areas are limited. Thus, this study mainly aims to measure the infiltration rate in major recharge areas of the Kathmandu Valley (KV) using a double-ring infiltrometer (concentric ring size 30 and 15 cm). It also aims to estimate the volume of groundwater recharge with respect to the decrease in permeable areas in the northern part of the KV. The results revealed the infiltration rate ranging from 0.01 to 37.2 cm/h with an average of 7.3 ± 8.4 cm/h. The infiltration is found to be dependent upon land-use among different categories and organic matter among different soil properties. Additionally, the volume of water recharge in 2010, 2020, and 2030 was estimated as 67.73, 59.05, and 51.5 million cubic meter per year (MCM/year), respectively, which clearly showed a decrease in recharge water with respect to a decrease in the permeable areas. Hence, the findings would be useful for policymakers, stakeholders, and urban planners regarding the preservation and conservation of permeable areas for sustainable water resource management and urban flood management.},
keywords = {double-ring infiltrometer, groundwater recharge, infiltration test, steady condition},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{nakburee2023influences,
title = {Influences of teleconnections on climate variables in northern and northeastern Thailand},
author = {Arisara Nakburee and Sangam Shrestha and S Mohanasundaram and Ho Huu Loc and Manisha Maharjan},
year = {2023},
date = {2023-01-01},
journal = {Journal of Water and Climate Change},
volume = {14},
number = {10},
pages = {3460--3483},
publisher = {IWA Publishing},
keywords = {},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{Ray2022,
title = {Climate change, differential impacts on women and gender maintreastreaming: a case study of East Rapti Watershed, Nepal},
author = {Anupama Ray and Vishnu Prasad Pandey and Robert Dongol},
url = {https://repository.upenn.edu/wh2ojournal/vol9/iss1/5},
year = {2022},
date = {2022-07-01},
journal = {wH20: The Journal of Gender and Water},
volume = {9},
number = {5},
abstract = {Women and water share a great deal of nexus in several ways. However, women have still minimal control over the management of water resources, making them more vulnerable to climate change. This paper assesses how climate change impacts differently across different women groups using an intersectionality lens, thereby exploring the situation of gender mainstreaming in water sector in three communities, namely, Karaiya, Basauli, and Dadagaun in Khairahani Municipality located in the East Rapti watershed, Nepal. In this perception-based study, we conducted three key informant interviews and household interviews with 45 women of different castes, ages, communities, education levels, and occupations. The results showed that different groups of women perceive climate change and its impact differently. For instance, women engaged in agriculture are more aware of the impact of climate change and are affected more by it because of changing trends in rainfall and temperature resulting in water shortage and flooding. On the other hand, they experience more physical and mental stress because of a higher responsibility of both agriculture and household . Despite 80% of female involvement in water user committees, there is a gap in participation by all groups of women. Irrespective of literacy and work engagement, women of Karaiya and Basauli, were less aware and active than Dadagau in various water development and management activities because of time constraints, family background, lesser interest, and awareness. Therefore, more efforts are required to achieve significant progress in gender mainstreaming considering intersectionality in the water sector and climate change. },
keywords = {East Rapti watershed, Gender Equality and Social Inclusion (GESI), gender mainstreaming, Khairahani municipality, women intersectionality},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{Shrestha2022,
title = {WASH and Health in Sindhupalchowk District of Nepal after the Gorkha Earthquake},
author = {Salina Shrestha and Rabin Malla, and Futaba Kazama},
doi = {https://doi.org/10.3390/soc12030091},
year = {2022},
date = {2022-06-09},
journal = {Societies},
volume = {12},
number = {3},
pages = {91},
abstract = {An earthquake of magnitude 7.8 MW and 6.8 MW struck Nepal on 25 April and 12 May, 2015, respectively, which caused massive damage. In such crises, understanding the water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) situation is of paramount importance. Therefore, we aimed to assess the WASH situation and its impact on health, particularly in the Sindhupalchowk district. A questionnaire survey and microbial analysis of water samples were conducted. Descriptive statistics and parametric and non-parametric statistical tests were employed. The results revealed that 97.1% of water samples from the source during the pre-monsoon season and 98.5% during the monsoon season had fecal contamination. Similarly, 92.8% of water samples during the pre-monsoon season and 96.7% during the monsoon season at point of use (PoU) had fecal contamination. Furthermore, water consumption was comparatively less during the pre-monsoon season. The increase in water consumption improved hygiene behavior and lowered the prevalence of waterborne diseases. Similarly, less water consumption affected water handling behavior; for example, the cleaning interval of storage vessels was less frequent. An increase in cleaning interval resulted in fecal contamination of water at PoU. The findings of this study can be useful in the review of existing WASH policy and plans and integration with the disaster management plan for disaster risk reduction.},
keywords = {fecal contamination, Gorkha earthquake, point of use, WASH, waterborne diseases},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{Ray2022,
title = {An assessment of climate change impacts on water sufficiency: The case of Extended East Rapti watershed, Nepal},
author = {Anupama Ray and Vishnu Prasad Pandey and Bhesh Raj Thapa},
doi = {doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2022.113434},
issn = {0013-9351},
year = {2022},
date = {2022-05-23},
journal = {Environmental Research},
volume = {212, Part D},
abstract = {An understanding of water sufficiency provides a basis for informed-planning, development and management of water resources. This study assessed spatio-temporal distribution in water sufficiency in the Extended East Rapti watershed in Nepal. The “Palika” (local government unit) is considered as a spatial-scale and seasons and future periods as temporal-scale. The water sufficiency was evaluated based on water sufficiency ratio (WSR) and water stress index (WSI). A hydrological model was developed to simulate water availability. An ensemble of multiple Regional Climate Models was used for assessing climate change impacts. Results showed water sufficiency by mid-century is projected to decrease; WSR by 40% and WSI by 61%. Despite projected decrease in water sufficiency, annually available water resources are projected as sufficient for the demands until the mid-century, however, seasonal variability and scarcity in future is projected in most Palikas. Such results are useful for water security planning in the Palikas.},
keywords = {Water availability; Water sufficiency; Water stress},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{Shakya2022,
title = {Tap Water Quality Degradation in an Intermittent Water Supply Area},
author = {Bijay Man Shakya and Takashi Nakamura and Sadhana Shrestha and Sarad Pathak and Kei Nishida and Rabin Malla},
url = {https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11270-021-05483-8},
doi = {https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-021-05483-8},
year = {2022},
date = {2022-02-25},
journal = {Water, Air, & Soil Pollution},
volume = {233},
number = {81},
abstract = {Decentralized tap water systems are an important drinking water source worldwide. A good quality, high-pressure continuous water supply (CWS) is always the target of any urban settlement. However, tap water in some areas are reported with deteriorated water quality even though treated well before supplying. Such deterioration of tap water quality is reported widely from areas with low water availability and in economically poor countries where water are supplied intermittently (IWS). This study focuses in identifying tap water quality in IWS and causes of water quality degradation using nitrate-nitrogen (NO3-N) as an indicator and stable isotopes of hydrogen (δD) as tracer. Nine water reservoirs and ninety municipal tap water (ten per reservoir) samples were collected during the wet (June–September) and dry (November–February) seasons in the Kathmandu Valley (KV), Nepal. Ten percent of the tap water samples exhibited higher NO3-N than those of their respective reservoirs during the wet season, while 16% exhibited higher concentrations during the dry season. Similarly, the isotopic signatures of tap water exhibited 3% and 23% higher concentrations than those of their respective reservoirs during the wet and dry seasons, respectively. Coupling analysis between NO3-N and δD demonstrates close connection of groundwater and tap water. The results indicate groundwater intrusion as the primary component in controlling tap water quality variations within the same distribution networks during IWS. Meanwhile, the obtained results also indicate probable areas of intrusion in the KV as well as usefulness of δD as a tool in the assessment of tap water systems.},
keywords = {Developing country, Groundwater intrusion, Intermittent water supply, Kathmandu Valley, Low pressurized tap, Tap water contamination},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{Shrestha2021,
title = {Situation of menstrual management facilities in schools of peri-urban areas of Nepal: WASH, privacy, and healthcare},
author = {Sadhana Shrestha and Salina Shrestha and Yuri Ito and Yuka Kobayashi and Kei Nishida and Kazama Futaba and Rabin Malla},
url = {https://iwaponline.com/washdev/article/doi/10.2166/washdev.2021.100/85229/Situation-of-menstrual-management-facilities-in},
doi = {doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2021.100},
year = {2021},
date = {2021-08-20},
journal = {Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development},
abstract = {Menstrual management (MM) facilities in schools are neglected in low- and middle-income countries. We examined the existing MM facilities, identified the deficient, and collected students' ideas in peri-urban schools of Nepal. The schools had basic MM facilities including water sanitation and hygiene (WASH) infrastructures, gender-segregated toilet facilities with taps, dustbins and running water, provision of emergency sanitary pads, etc. Out of 71 students who reported soiling of dresses with menstrual blood as a common problem, 27% went home and did not return in such situation instead of washing off at school. Forty-six per cent of students used washable absorbents, but washing and drying facilities were lacking, and students adapted by using disposable pads at school and washable at home. Out of 126 students, 106 took days off during menstruation in the past three months with an average of 2.6 days by one student. Sixty-one per cent gave the reason as pain and 39% tiredness for taking days off. Healthcare facilities were lacking in schools, hence, lack of these facilities in schools might be contributing to absenteeism. The traditionally advocated list of MM facilities for schools, largely involving WASH facilities, should be updated, including newly identified factors which were also suggested by students.},
keywords = {healthcare need, menstrual pain and discomfort, Nepal, school absenteeism, sick room, space for washing and drying},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{Prajapati2021,
title = {Streams, sewage, and shallow groundwater: stream-aquifer interactions in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal},
author = {Rajaram Prajapati and Nick N. Overkamp and Niek Moesker and Kate Happee and Rick van Bentem and Anusha Danegulu and Bikesh Manandhar and Nischal Devkota and Amber Bahadur Thapa and Surabhi Upadhyay and Rocky Talchabhadel and Bhesh Raj Thapa and Rabin Malla and Vishnu Prasad Pandey and Jefrey C. Davids},
url = {https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs40899-021-00542-8},
doi = {doi.org/10.1007/s40899-021-00542-8},
year = {2021},
date = {2021-08-02},
journal = {Sustainable Water Resources Management},
volume = {7},
number = {5},
pages = {1-18},
abstract = {The Kathmandu Valley in Nepal is facing a water quantity and quality crisis due to rapid urbanization and haphazard water and wastewater planning and management. Annually, groundwater extractions in the Kathmandu Valley exceed capture, resulting in groundwater table declines. Streams are often important sources of recharge to (or destination of discharges from) aquifers. However, stream-aquifer interactions in the Kathmandu Valley are poorly understood. To improve this understanding, we performed topographic surveys of water levels, and measured water quality, in streams and adjacent hand-dug wells (shallow aquifer). In pre-monsoon, 12% (2018) and 44% (2019) of wells had water levels higher than adjacent streams, indicating mostly a loss of stream water to the aquifer. However, in post-monsoon, 69% (2018) and 70% (2019) of wells had water levels higher than adjacent streams, indicating that monsoon rainfall contributes to shallow aquifer recharge which, at least temporarily, causes streams to transition from losing to gaining. Concentrations of all water quality parameters (electrical conductivity, ammonia, alkalinity, and hardness) were higher in the pre-monsoon compared to post-monsoon in both streams and wells. There was no recurring trend in water level difference longitudinally from upstream to downstream. However, water quality in streams and wells depleted from upstream to downstream. While we clearly observed seasonal refilling of the shallow aquifer, the role of the deep aquifer in seasonal storage processes deserve future research attention.},
keywords = {Groundwater, Kathmandu Valley, Stream-aquifer interactions, Water management, Water quality},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{Thakuri2021,
title = {Lake Watershed Dynamics and Bathymetry Modeling of Rara and Begnas Lakes in Nepal},
author = {Sudeep Thakuri and Furbe Lama and Rabin Malla and Nitesh Khadka and Narayan Prasad Ghimire and Franco Salerno},
url = {https://www.mdpi.com/2673-4834/2/2/16},
doi = {10.3390/earth2020016},
year = {2021},
date = {2021-06-05},
volume = {2},
number = {2},
pages = {272-286},
abstract = {Lake evolution and its changes over time are an evident and easily measurable signal of human activities and climate change impacts in mountain regions. This study presents bathymetric modeling of permanent lakes (Begnas and Rara Lakes) located in two different geographic settings of Nepal. Moreover, temporal changes in land cover and soil erosion of the lake watersheds, as well as climatic trends around these lakes, are assessed. This study supports establishing reference sites for exploring scientific evidence on the impacts of anthropogenic and climate change on lake hydrological systems. Second-order polynomial models best represent the relationship between lake depth and volume. Rara Lake had a maximum depth of 169 m with an area of 10.52 km2 and a volume of 1013.305 million cubic meters (Mm3), whereas Begnas Lake had a maximum depth of 12.5 m with an area of 2.98 ± 0.10 km2 and a water volume of 13.539 Mm3 in the year 2019. Both lake regions are experiencing changes in temperature and rainfall. The area and volume of Rara Lake and its watershed have been relatively stable even with minimal land-cover change during the recent decades. Begnas Lake and its watershed have experienced significant changes in the last few decades. This study concludes that human activities in the Begnas Lake watersheds are the primary source of lake area variation rather than climate change.},
keywords = {bathymetry, depth–volume relationship, lake, water level, water volume},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}